General Linear Model in SPM

You should land on this page after having collected your fMRI data, converted it to BIDS and preprocessed it. Your goal now is to model the BOLD activity with a Generalised Linear Model (GLM), in order to obtain the beta values on which to apply further analyses.

You should start here if you are not yet familiar with SPM and what it does. Before scripting your analysis pipeline, take your time to understand the different steps taken by SPM and what they do. Once you're confident with it, move ahead and write your analysis in code (see First-level analysis - scripting).

In this section, we will use the Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM) package to construct the GLM. Here’s an overview of the steps:

1. Data Preparation: Get your files ready for SPM.
2. Design Matrix Setup: Define the model for your analysis.
3. Model Estimation & Results: Estimate your model and analyze contrasts.

This page will accompany you through the steps and can be used as a guide to the input and output of each function of SPM. It is not a complete tutorial on SPM, however, and there are more extensive resources out there. It can be a good idea to cover the tutorials from Andy Jahn, for instance, as they go in depth into SPM and how it works.

---

Step 1: Data Preparation

Before running the GLM, we need to make sure the data is compatible with SPM. There are two steps that need to be taken to bring your .nii files from fMRIPrep output to SPM input:

1. gunzipping (de-compressing .nii.gz files, which SPM can't handle natively)
2. smoothing (mostly for localizer runs).

The suggested way of proceeding is to create a derivatives/pre-SPM folder where to store a gunzipped output folder and a smoothed output folder.

Decompressing NIfTI Files

SPM cannot process .nii.gz files directly, so we first need to decompress them:

1. Create a directory for pre-processed files:

mkdir derivatives/pre-SPM

1. Decompress the files using gunzip in the terminal:

gunzip path/to/your/files/*.nii.gz

• Store the decompressed files in a subdirectory called gunzipped inside derivatives/pre-SPM.

Decompress with a right-click!

Most Operating Systems will let you decompress the nii.gz files directly from the File Explorer. Right click on the files you want to decompress, and extract them like you would do with a compressed folder.

Smoothing Functional Data

Smoothing is required to increase signal-to-noise ratio, especially for localizer runs. Follow these steps:

1. Launch the SPM GUI with the command:

spm fmri

1. In the GUI, click on Smooth.
2. Select the decompressed .nii files.
3. Set the FWHM (Full Width at Half Maximum) to [4 4 4] or [6 6 6] for moderate smoothing.
4. Save the smoothed output in derivatives/pre-SPM/smoothed.

Automated Preprocessing

You can integrate the decompression and smoothing steps into a script to streamline your workflow, avoiding manual steps (see the Analysis Workflow for an example).

---

Step 2: Design Matrix Setup

To run a GLM, you need to create a design matrix that links the timing of experimental conditions to the observed BOLD response. The design matrix is specified in SPM’s Specify 1st level interface. While this can be done manually for simpler designs, for complex designs with many conditions, it’s more efficient to use externally generated onset time and confounds files.

Creating Onset Files

For complex designs, you should create one onset file per run per subject, containing information about event types, onsets, and durations. The eventsBIDS2SPM function can help convert BIDS-formatted event files into the onset files that SPM requires.

1. Use the eventsBIDS2SPM function to convert event files.

2. Store the onset files in the following structure:

   • BIDS/sub-xx/func/sub-xx_run-x_eventsspm.mat.

   BIDS/
   ├── sub-01/
   │   └── func/
   │       ├── sub-01_run-1_eventsspm.mat
   │       └── sub-01_run-2_eventsspm.mat
   

eventsBIDS2SPM

function new_df = eventsBIDS2SPM(tsv_file)
    % eventsBIDS2SPM - Convert BIDS event files to SPM format
    % This function reads a BIDS event file and converts it to the format required by SPM.
    % It extracts the unique trial types and their onsets and durations and stores them in a
    % Matlab structure.
    %
    % Author: Andrea Costantino
    % Date: 23/1/2023
    %
    % Usage:
    %   mat_dict = eventsBIDS2SPM(tsv_file, run_id)
    %
    % Inputs:
    %   tsv_file - string, path to the tsv file containing the events
    %
    % Outputs:
    %   mat_dict - struct, a Matlab structure containing the events in the format
    %              required by SPM. The structure contains three fields:
    %                - 'names': cell array of string, the names of the trial types
    %                - 'onsets': cell array of double, onset times of the trials
    %                - 'durations': cell array of double, duration of the trials
    %
    % This function reads a BIDS event file and converts it to the format required by SPM.
    % It extracts the unique trial types and their onsets and durations and stores them in a
    % Matlab structure

    % read the tsv file
    df = readtable(tsv_file,'FileType','text');
    % Select unique trial type name
    unique_names = unique(df.trial_type);
    % Make new table in a form that SPM can read
    new_df = table('Size',[length(unique_names),3],'VariableTypes',{'cellstr', 'cellstr', 'cellstr'},'VariableNames',{'names', 'onsets', 'durations'});
    % For each trial type (i.e., condition)
    for k = 1:length(unique_names)
        % Select rows belonging to that condition
        filtered = df(strcmp(df.trial_type,unique_names{k}),:);
        % Copy trial name, onset and duration to the new table
        new_df.names(k) = unique(filtered.trial_type);
        new_df.onsets(k) = {filtered.onset};
        new_df.durations(k) = {filtered.duration};
    end
    new_df = sortrows(new_df, 'names');
end

Creating Confounds Files

Head motion and other confound regressors from fMRIPrep need to be formatted to be compatible with SPM. The fMRIprepConfounds2SPM function can convert these files into the format required by SPM.

1. Use the fMRIprepConfounds2SPM function to convert confounds from fMRIPrep.
2. Store the confounds files in the BIDS structure with SPM-compatible names:
   • BIDS/sub-xx/func/sub-xx_run-x_confoundsspm.mat.

fMRIprepConfounds2SPM

function confounds = fMRIprepConfounds2SPM(json_path, tsv_path, pipeline)
    % fMRIprepConfounds2SPM - Extracts and formats fMRI confounds for SPM analysis
    %
    % This function processes confound data from fMRIprep outputs, suitable for
    % Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM) analysis. It reads a JSON file with
    % confound descriptions and a TSV file with confound values, then selects and
    % formats the required confounds based on the specified denoising pipeline.
    %
    % Usage:
    %   confounds = fMRIprepConfounds2SPM(json_path, tsv_path, pipeline)
    %
    % Inputs:
    %   json_path (string): Full path to the JSON file. This file contains metadata
    %                       about the confounds, such as their names and properties.
    %
    %   tsv_path (string):  Full path to the TSV file. This file holds the actual
    %                       confound values in a tabular format for each fMRI run.
    %
    %   pipeline (cell array of strings): Specifies the denoising strategies to be
    %                                     applied. Each element is a string in the
    %                                     format 'strategy-number'. For example,
    %                                     'HMP-6' indicates using 6 head motion
    %                                     parameters. Valid strategies include:
    %             'HMP': Head Motion Parameters, options: 6, 12, 24
    %             'GS': Global Signal, options: 1, 2, 4
    %             'CSF_WM': CSF and White Matter signals, options: 2, 4, 8
    %             'aCompCor': CompCor, options: 10, 50
    %             'MotionOutlier': Motion Outliers, options: FD > 0.5, DVARS > 1.5
    %             'Cosine': Discrete Cosine Transform based regressors for HPF
    %             'FD': Framewise Displacement, a raw non-binary value
    %             'Null': Returns an empty table if no confounds are to be applied
    %
    % Outputs:
    %   confounds (table): A table containing the selected confounds, formatted for
    %                      use in SPM. Each column represents a different confound,
    %                      and each row corresponds to a time point in the fMRI data.
    %
    % Author: Andrea Costantino
    % Date: 23/1/2023
    %
    % Example:
    %   confounds = fMRIprepConfounds2SPM('path/to/json', 'path/to/tsv', {'HMP-6', 'GS-4'});
    %
    % This example would extract and format 6 head motion parameters and the global
    % signal (with raw, derivative, and squared derivative) for SPM analysis.

    % Read the TSV file containing the confound values
    tsv_run = readtable(tsv_path, 'FileType', 'text');

    % Open and read the JSON file, then parse it into a MATLAB structure
    fid = fopen(json_path); 
    raw = fread(fid, inf); 
    str = char(raw'); 
    fclose(fid); 
    json_run = jsondecode(str);

    % Initialize an empty cell array to store the keys of the selected confounds
    selected_keys = {};

    % If 'Null' is found in the pipeline, return an empty table and exit the function
    if any(strcmp(pipeline, 'Null'))
        disp('"Null" found in the pipeline. Returning an empty table.')
        return;
    else
        % Process each specified strategy in the pipeline

        % Head Motion Parameters (HMP)
        if any(contains(pipeline, 'HMP'))
            % Extract and validate the specified number of head motion parameters
            idx = find(contains(pipeline, 'HMP'));
            conf_num_str = pipeline(idx(1)); 
            conf_num_str_split = strsplit(conf_num_str{1}, '-');
            conf_num = str2double(conf_num_str_split(2));
            if ~any([6, 12, 24] == conf_num)
                error('HMP must be 6, 12, or 24.');
            else
                % Add the appropriate head motion parameters to selected_keys
                hmp_id = floor(conf_num / 6);
                if hmp_id > 0
                    selected_keys = [selected_keys, {'rot_x', 'rot_y', 'rot_z', 'trans_x', 'trans_y', 'trans_z'}];
                end
                if hmp_id > 1
                    selected_keys = [selected_keys, {'rot_x_derivative1', 'rot_y_derivative1', 'rot_z_derivative1', 'trans_x_derivative1', 'trans_y_derivative1', 'trans_z_derivative1'}];
                end
                if hmp_id > 2
                    selected_keys = [selected_keys, {'rot_x_power2', 'rot_y_power2', 'rot_z_power2', 'trans_x_power2', 'trans_y_power2', 'trans_z_power2', 'rot_x_derivative1_power2', 'rot_y_derivative1_power2', 'rot_z_derivative1_power2', 'trans_x_derivative1_power2', 'trans_y_derivative1_power2', 'trans_z_derivative1_power2'}];
                end
            end
        end

        % Global Signal (GS)
        if any(contains(pipeline, 'GS'))
            % Extract and validate the specified level of global signal processing
            idx = find(contains(pipeline, 'GS'));
            conf_num_str = pipeline(idx(1)); 
            conf_num_str_split = strsplit(conf_num_str{1}, '-');
            conf_num = str2double(conf_num_str_split(2));
            if ~any([1, 2, 4] == conf_num)
                error('GS must be 1, 2, or 4.');
            else
                % Add the global signal parameters to selected_keys based on the specified level
                gs_id = conf_num;
                if gs_id > 0
                    selected_keys = [selected_keys, {'global_signal'}];
                end
                if gs_id > 1
                    selected_keys = [selected_keys, {'global_signal_derivative1'}];
                end
                if gs_id > 2
                    selected_keys = [selected_keys, {'global_signal_derivative1_power2', 'global_signal_power2'}];
                end
            end
        end

        % CSF and WM masks global signal (CSF_WM)
        if any(contains(pipeline, 'CSF_WM'))
            % Extract and validate the specified level of CSF/WM signal processing
            idx = find(contains(pipeline, 'CSF_WM'));
            conf_num_str = pipeline(idx(1)); 
            conf_num_str_split = strsplit(conf_num_str{1}, '-');
            conf_num = str2double(conf_num_str_split(2));
            if ~any([2, 4, 8] == conf_num)
                error('CSF_WM must be 2, 4, or 8.');
            else
                % Add the CSF and WM parameters to selected_keys based on the specified level
                phys_id = floor(conf_num / 2);
                if phys_id > 0
                    selected_keys = [selected_keys, {'white_matter', 'csf'}];
                end
                if phys_id > 1
                    selected_keys = [selected_keys, {'white_matter_derivative1', 'csf_derivative1'}];
                end
                if phys_id > 2
                    selected_keys = [selected_keys, {'white_matter_derivative1_power2', 'csf_derivative1_power2', 'white_matter_power2', 'csf_power2'}];
                end
            end
        end

        % aCompCor
        if any(contains(pipeline, 'aCompCor'))
            % Extract and format aCompCor confounds based on the specified number
            csf_50_dict = json_run(ismember({json_run.Mask}, 'CSF') & ismember({json_run.Method}, 'aCompCor') & ~contains({json_run.key}, 'dropped'));
            wm_50_dict = json_run(ismember({json_run.Mask}, 'WM') & ismember({json_run.Method}, 'aCompCor') & ~contains({json_run.key}, 'dropped'));
            idx = find(contains(pipeline, 'aCompCor'));
            conf_num_str = pipeline{idx(1)}; 
            conf_num_str_split = strsplit(conf_num_str{1}, '-');
            conf_num = str2double(conf_num_str_split(2));
            if ~any([10, 50] == conf_num)
                error('aCompCor must be 10 or 50.');
            else
                % Select the appropriate aCompCor components and add them to selected_keys
                if conf_num == 10
                    csf = sort(cell2mat(csf_50_dict.keys()));
                    csf_10 = csf(1:5);
                    wm = sort(cell2mat(wm_50_dict.keys()));
                    wm_10 = wm(1:5);
                    selected_keys = [selected_keys, csf_10, wm_10];
                elseif conf_num == 50
                    csf_50 = cell2mat(csf_50_dict.keys());
                    wm_50 = cell2mat(wm_50_dict.keys());
                    selected_keys = [selected_keys, csf_50, wm_50];
                end
            end
        end

        % Cosine
        if any(contains(pipeline, 'Cosine'))
            % Extract cosine-based regressors for high-pass filtering
            cosine_keys = tsv_run.Properties.VariableNames(contains(tsv_run.Properties.VariableNames, 'cosine'));
            selected_keys = [selected_keys, cosine_keys];
        end

        % MotionOutlier
        if any(contains(pipeline, 'MotionOutlier'))
            % Process motion outliers, either using pre-computed values or calculating them
            motion_outlier_keys = tsv_run.Properties.VariableNames(find(contains(tsv_run.Properties.VariableNames, {'non_steady_state_outlier', 'motion_outlier'})));
            selected_keys = [selected_keys, motion_outlier_keys];
        end

        % Framewise Displacement (FD)
        if any(contains(pipeline, 'FD'))
            % Add raw framewise displacement values to selected_keys
            % If the first row is 'n/a', replace it with 0
            fd_values = tsv_run.framewise_displacement;
            if isnan(fd_values(1))
                fd_values(1) = 0;
            end
            tsv_run.framewise_displacement = fd_values;
            selected_keys = [selected_keys, {'framewise_displacement'}];
        end

        % Retrieve the selected confounds and convert them into a table
        confounds_table = tsv_run(:, ismember(tsv_run.Properties.VariableNames, selected_keys));
        confounds = fillmissing(confounds_table, 'constant', 0);
end

BIDS-Compliant Naming

Ensure the files are saved with names that include:

• sub-xx: subject identifier.
• run-x: run identifier.
• confoundsspm or eventsspm for confounds and timings, respectively.

Using the Functions in a Script

Both eventsBIDS2SPM and fMRIprepConfounds2SPM are MATLAB functions that can be integrated into scripts for batch processing in SPM. This allows you to automate the import of timing and confounds data or save them into SPM-compatible files for later use.

Directly Load Data into SPMSave SPM-Compatible Files

You can use these functions within a MATLAB script to load onset times and confounds directly into an SPM batch job. This is useful when you want to process multiple subjects and runs in one go:

% Example script to use eventsBIDS2SPM and fMRIprepConfounds2SPM in batch jobs
subject_id = 'sub-01';
run_id = 'run-01';

% Paths to the BIDS event and confound files
tsv_file = fullfile('BIDS', subject_id, 'func', [subject_id '_' run_id '_events.tsv']);
json_file = fullfile('BIDS', subject_id, 'func', [subject_id '_' run_id '_desc-confounds_timeseries.json']);
confound_tsv = fullfile('BIDS', subject_id, 'func', [subject_id '_' run_id '_desc-confounds_timeseries.tsv']);

% Convert event files to SPM-compatible format
onset_data = eventsBIDS2SPM(tsv_file);

% Convert confound files to SPM-compatible format with a chosen pipeline
pipeline = {'HMP-6', 'GS-1'}; % Example: 6 head motion parameters + 1 global signal
confound_data = fMRIprepConfounds2SPM(json_file, confound_tsv, pipeline);

% Pass the resulting onset and confound data directly into SPM batch processing
matlabbatch{1}.spm.stats.fmri_spec.sess.multi = {onset_data};
matlabbatch{1}.spm.stats.fmri_spec.sess.multi_reg = {confound_data};

% Run the SPM batch
spm_jobman('run', matlabbatch);

This script converts the timing and confounds information, then immediately feeds them into an SPM batch, making it suitable for automated batch jobs over multiple runs or subject.

If you want to save the converted files for later use, you can use the functions to write them into files with BIDS-compliant names. This is helpful if you need to inspect the files or share them with collaborators before running the GLM analysis:

% Example script to convert and save files in SPM-compatible format
subject_id = 'sub-01';
run_id = 'run-01';

% Paths to the BIDS event and confound files
tsv_file = fullfile('BIDS', subject_id, 'func', [subject_id '_' run_id '_events.tsv']);
json_file = fullfile('BIDS', subject_id, 'func', [subject_id '_' run_id '_desc-confounds_timeseries.json']);
confound_tsv = fullfile('BIDS', subject_id, 'func', [subject_id '_' run_id '_desc-confounds_timeseries.tsv']);

% Specify output paths
onset_save_path = fullfile('BIDS', subject_id, 'func', [subject_id '_' run_id '_desc-events.mat']);
confound_save_path = fullfile('BIDS', subject_id, 'func', [subject_id '_' run_id '_desc-confoundsspm.mat']);

% Convert and save onset data
onset_data = eventsBIDS2SPM(tsv_file);
save(onset_save_path, 'onset_data');

% Convert and save confound data with a chosen pipeline
pipeline = {'HMP-6', 'GS-1'}; % Example: 6 head motion parameters + 1 global signal
confound_data = fMRIprepConfounds2SPM(json_file, confound_tsv, pipeline);
save(confound_save_path, 'confound_data');

% Now the onset and confound files can be loaded into SPM as needed.

This script allows you to convert the timing and confound data and save them to files with clear, BIDS-compliant names. These files can later be imported into SPM using the GUI or through further scripting.

Automating Batch Processing

By integrating these functions into a script, you can automate the entire process of setting up the design matrix for multiple subjects and runs. This approach is particularly useful for large datasets, allowing you to focus on refining the analysis rather than manual data preparation.

Specifying the 1^st-Level Model in SPM

Once you have your onset times and confound regressors files ready, you can set up the design matrix:

1. Open SPM: Launch the SPM GUI with spm fmri
2. Specify 1^st-Level: Go to Specify 1st Level in the SPM menu.
3. Set Parameters:
   • Units for design: Set to seconds.
   • Interscan interval (TR): Use your fMRI acquisition’s TR value.
   • Microtime resolution: This should be the number of slices acquired per TR (e.g., 64 for a 64-slice scan).
4. Input Onset Files:
   • Use the multiple conditions option to input onset time files (e.g., sub-01_run-01_eventsspm.mat).
5. Include Confound Regressors:
   • Select the confound regressors from the confound files (e.g., sub-01_run-01_confoundsspm.mat).

Reviewing the Design Matrix

After specifying the design matrix:

1. Click Review: This will open a visualization of the design matrix.
2. Check for the following:
   • Clear separation between conditions.
   • Proper alignment of conditions with the expected timing.
   • Inclusion of nuisance regressors (e.g., head motion).

What to Look For

• Boxcar Patterns: Ensure that the regressors follow the expected patterns based on your design.
• Orthogonality: Verify that the conditions are not overly correlated, as this can impact the model’s stability.

Saving the Design Matrix

To save the design matrix visualization for documentation: - Right-click on the matrix plot and select Save as Image. - Store the image in your documentation folder.

---

Step 3: Model Estimation & Results

With your design matrix ready, you can estimate the model and define contrasts to test your hypotheses. This step will produce the beta values and residuals necessary for further analysis.

Estimating the Model

1. Review the Design Matrix: Before estimation, ensure the design matrix looks correct by clicking Review.

2. Estimate the Model: Select Estimate in the GUI and choose the SPM.mat file.

   • Set write residuals to yes to save residual images.

   • Click Run to initiate the model estimation.

   • This process will generate beta images (one per regressor) and residual variance estimates.

Why Save Residuals?

Saving residuals can help diagnose issues with model fit by checking for any systematic patterns in the residual images.

Defining and Evaluating Contrasts

Contrasts allow you to test specific hypotheses about the brain's response to different conditions, such as comparing activations between different task conditions or testing against a baseline.

1. Define New Contrasts:

   • Go to Results > Define New Contrast.
   • Enter a name for the contrast (e.g., Condition1 > Condition2).
   • Specify the weights for each condition based on the order of the regressors (e.g., [1 -1]).

2. Evaluate the Contrasts:

   • After defining contrasts, set the desired threshold (e.g., p < 0.001) and click Run to see the results.
   • Review the statistical maps for significant clusters or activations.

Example Contrast

For a comparison between two conditions (e.g., Faces vs. Objects), use:

[1 -1]

This weights Faces positively and Objects negatively, highlighting brain regions more active during the Faces condition.

---

Verifying the Order of Regressors

It’s crucial to confirm the order of regressors in the design matrix before specifying contrasts to ensure that your weights align correctly with the conditions. Here’s how to verify this using both the SPM GUI and by inspecting the SPM.mat file directly.

Option 1: Checking Regressor Order Using the SPM GUIOption 2: Inspecting the SPM.mat File Directly

1. Review the Design Matrix:

   • Open SPM and select Review > SPM.mat.
   • This opens the design matrix in a new window.
   • In the design matrix window, each column represents a different regressor (condition or nuisance variable).

2. Interpret the Design Matrix:

   • Hover over each column to see the name and description of the regressor.
   • Typically, the first set of columns corresponds to your experimental conditions (e.g., Faces, Objects), followed by any nuisance regressors (e.g., motion parameters).
   • Make a note of the order so that you can set your contrast weights accurately.

Use the Design Matrix Visualization

The design matrix visualization provides a graphical representation of each regressor. Patterns in the design matrix (e.g., boxcar shapes for task conditions) can help you verify the expected structure.

1. Load the SPM.mat File in MATLAB:

   In the MATLAB command window, navigate to the folder containing your SPM.mat file:

   cd('/path/to/your/SPM_results_folder');
   load('SPM.mat');
   

   This loads the SPM structure into your workspace.

2. Explore the Regressors:

   To see the names of the regressors, type:

   SPM.xX.name
   

   This command will display a list of the regressor names in the order they appear in the design matrix.

3. Interpret the Output:

   The output will look something like this:

   'Sn(1) condition1*bf(1)'
   'Sn(1) condition2*bf(1)'
   'Sn(1) condition3*bf(1)'
   'Sn(1) motion_x'
   'Sn(1) motion_y'
   

   Each string corresponds to a regressor:
   • Sn(1): Refers to session 1 (the run number).
   • condition1*bf(1): Represents a condition convolved with the basis function (e.g., Faces).
   • motion_x, motion_y, etc.: These are motion parameters as nuisance regressors.

4. Align the Contrast Weights:

   Based on this order, you can now set your contrast weights correctly. For instance, if condition1 is the first regressor and condition2 is the second, a contrast comparing them would be:

   [1 -1 0 0 0 ...]
   

Checking Regressors in a Script

If you are scripting the process, you can automate this check by including:

% Load the design matrix and display regressor names
load('SPM.mat');
disp(SPM.xX.name);

This will print the regressor names directly in the MATLAB command window, helping you confirm the correct order before specifying your contrasts.

Why Checking Regressor Order Matters?

• Ensures Correct Contrast Specification: Mismatched contrasts can lead to incorrect interpretations of your data, as they might test unintended comparisons.
• Simplifies Troubleshooting: If the results look unexpected, double-checking the regressor order is one of the first steps to identify potential issues in the GLM setup.
• Consistency Across Sessions: If you’re analyzing multiple runs or sessions, verifying regressor order ensures consistency across sessions, which is crucial for second-level analyses.

Visualizing and Saving Results

1. Viewing Results: Use the SPM results viewer to explore significant clusters.
2. Save the Statistical Maps:
   • Save thresholded activation maps as .nii files using the Save button in the results window.
3. Generate Figures:
   • Use the Render or Surface options to create visual summaries of your findings.
   • Save these figures for inclusion in reports or presentations.

Exporting Images

To include figures in publications or reports: - Use Export in SPM to save figures as high-resolution images. - For 3D brain renderings, adjust the orientation and threshold for a clear presentation.

---

• [TODO]: Add example directories showing how files are organized before and after preprocessing.
• [TODO]: Include screenshots or illustrations for key steps (e.g., setting up the design matrix in SPM).
• [PLACEHOLDER]: Add a screenshot of the SPM results interface to illustrate how to set thresholds.
• [TODO]: Include instructions on visualizing and saving the design matrix in SPM for documentation.